Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons to Rogue States and International Terrorists

Introduction Proliferation of nuclear weapons poses many threats to the international security. In response to such threats, nations look for ways of protecting their territorial integrity. The most effective mechanism of protecting individual national sovereignty entails adopting proactive response to security threats as opposed to reactive strategies (Nau 2008; Ross Feng 2008).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons to Rogue States and International Terrorists specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Deterrence is one of the proactive mechanisms of shielding a nation from violations of territorial integrity through acts such as terrorism in an international arena. This paper declares deterrence an effective strategy to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons to rogue states and international terrorists. First, it presents the theory of deterrence before discussing the challenges of proli feration of nuclear weapons and terrorism. Lastly, it justifies why deterrence constitutes an effective strategy of overcoming the problem of proliferation of nuclear weapons and terrorism. Deterrence The deterrence theory acquired immense recognitions in the cold war era. Its focus was on nuclear weapons. The strategy aims at dissuading enemies from taking destructive actions (Vasquez 2009, p.14). It also involves requesting other nations to stop doing things that are against other nations’ desires. Hence, it entails using threats as a means of convincing other nations why it is not in order to follow some paths. As a military strategist and a proponent of deterrence, Bernard Brodie claims that nations need to have credible and reliable nuclear deterrence to ensure that they are ready at all times, but not using the nuclear weaponry (Vasquez 2009). As quoted by Freedman (2004, p.43), Thomas Schelling presented the concept, ‘military strategy can no longer be defined as the science of military victory’. Rather, as a successful military strategy, he claims that deterrence encompasses coercion and/or acts of intimidation. In this extent, deterrence implies the capacity to harm other states that interact in the international arena in the effort to influence certain states to comply with the need to protect territorial integrity. The success of deterrence to curb any act of terrorism rests on the ability of a nation to deploy the power to hurt or harm other nations as a motivating factor for the target nation not to engage in any act that may harm the targeting nation (Waltz 2010). Proliferation of nuclear weapons in Iran evidences this assertion (Litvintsev 2014). The programme was initiated in the 1950s, with European governments and the US taking central roles.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It was part of the programme of atoms for peace. The involvement of these two parties did not proceed for long since it was terminated during the close of 1970s when the Iranian Shah was overthrown by the country’s insurgency. In the mid 1980s, Khomeini regime brought up the idea of a nuclear programme in secret. The plan also encompassed preparing for acquiring the capacity to produce nuclear weapons that were initiated during the Shah’s reign. This move was initiated by the Iran’s devastation that had been caused by Iraq due to the moves of Iraq to deploy chemicals weapons in the war between the two nations. Consequently, if Iran can successfully implement its nuclear weapon project, which the administration says is meant for nuclear energy purposes, the implication is that it can develop the capacity to coerce other nations in the international arena to behave in certain ways. While deterring or coercing other nations, violence is often inevitable. However, it can be mitigated through the accomm odation strategy. Hence, hurting other nations as a mechanism of exercising a bargaining power forms the basis of the deterrence theory. Such deterrence is most effective when reserved (Morgan 2003). Indeed, Iran has attempted to present itself as a good international relations party by attempting to hold its ability to engage in the proliferation of nuclear weapons as a reserve for its future ability to coerce other nations. In 1990, Iran endeavoured to develop its own nuclear power for the mining and processing of uranium. Part of this energy was also scheduled to be utilised in the production of large amounts of water that is needed in the manufacture of plutonium. Still in the same year, Iran also began its secret mission of buying uranium centrifuges that were made by A.Q khan. Testing of the centrifuges began in 2000. Although this process was done secretly, in 2002, the fuel activities cycle was publicised, thus prompting the intervention of France, Britain, IAEA, and Germany . These players in the international peace accord believed that Iran had engaged in a hidden mission of developing nuclear weapons for use against its adversaries such as the US and Iraq.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons to Rogue States and International Terrorists specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Power constitutes an important aspect that enables a nation to pursue its own individual interests over other nations. Indeed, deployment of military threats to deter any possibility of wars and/or crisis constitutes important issues in the discussion of international security (Morgenthau 2011). For instance, the US, with cooperation from other militarily powerful nations, threatened to attack Iran if it did not abandon its nuclear weaponry project (Litvintsev 2014). The US has also predicted possible military confrontation consequences in Syria if the UN reports indicates that it has be en using chemical weapons against is citizens. In such situations, the US and other powerful nations declare the step a potential threat to international security. They persuade other nations not to engage in any act that interferes with international peace because of losses and other costs that such a move might attract (Adsera Boix 2002). In the international security discourses, deterrence policies have implications of pushing for certain policy goals. In this context, deterrence covers all ‘threats of military retaliation as directed from leaders of one state to those of another in an attempt to prevent the latter from resorting to the threat of using military force in pursuit of its foreign policy goals’ (Waltz 2010, p. 734). Deterrence guidelines can be grouped into two major classes, namely the preclusion of any equipped assault against a nation’s field or an unswerving preclusion and avoidance of any prepared assault against another country. Directed det errence occurs in case of direct confrontation between neighbouring nations without any intervention of a superpower nation (Waltz 2010). Extended deterrence occurs where great nations are involved in international confrontation such as the case of fighting against terrorism in Afghanistan, Iraq, and now in Somalia. As opposed to direct deterrence, extended deterrence attracts scholarly interest. Indeed, prevention of the proliferation of nuclear weapons or measures to avert acts of terrorism lies within the category of extended deterrence.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Morgan (2003) asserts that deterrence may aim at resolving short-term pressing threats to international security (immediate deterrence) or curtailing short-term threats from arising (general deterrence). The case of the conflict between Iran and the US in the exploration of the nuclear weaponry capability exemplifies the concept of direct deterrence. The Problem of Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons International community has had an objective of preventing the probable use of nuclear weapons. The overall goal is to ensure the abolition of weapons reserves. This interest has given rise to various international institutions and governmental agencies such as IAEA that seek to ensure that no more nuclear weapons are developed. Developing nuclear weapons threatens the territorial integrity of nations, especially those that constitute an adversary to a given state. For instance, the west views Iran’s nuclear programme as a means of developing the capacity to mass-destroy people and/ or seeking the power to control the world. Since the Second World War, peace has been the main superiority of many nations all over the world. Therefore, superpower nations have a noble responsibility of ensuring that all nations hold and follow the peace accord, as enumerated in the UN charter. Indeed, the west pushes the world to view Iran’s missions to establish nuclear power capability as an attempt to threaten the life of the nationalities of the west and that of all people across the globe. With one nation having a superior weaponry capability, the deterrence capability of a likely target becomes incredibly impossible. Although seeking deterrence against any potential nuclear weaponry attack is important, it has its negative ramifications. For instance, the overall consequences of spreading the negativity that Iran is a threat to the international peace, especially on the gulf region, is making the international community see Iran as a country that is dominated by a pop ulation that is strategically prepared to mass-destroy lives. Consequently, the objective of the west is to make people perceive Iranians as a threat to the international peace without necessarily considering that they took part in the creation of the programme. Nevertheless, negative portrayal cannot suffice as a grounded reason for Iran’s alleged participation in the development of nuclear weapons in secret. The Problem of Terrorism Terrorism seeks to disrupt or destroy targets through cowardly acts. Terrorists deploy acts such as assassinations, hijacking, and kidnapping to advance their political discourses (Miller 2013). Indeed, terrorism has risen to become a major global problem. Cases of suicidal bombing have been registered in Afghanistan, Iraq, African nations, and the US among other places. Terrorism takes different forms. However, their main purpose entails forcing regime changes in different nations. Terrorism is also acerbated against people who are opposed to s ome religious, cultural, political, and even racial ideologies. For instance, in 1972, Palestinian liberation organisation held Munich Olympics under siege in an attempt to compel the Israeli government to free some captured terrorists. However, the government failed to comply with their demand. They resorted to blowing up helicopters that were ferrying Israeli athletes to the extent of killing the entire team (Miller 2013). Overcoming Terrorism and Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons through Deterrence In September 2001, terrorists hijacked a plane, which hit the twin towers. It killed about 3,000 Americans. Following the attacks, the US showed a greater interest in instilling democracy by using force. This concern is evidenced by the 2003 inversion of Iraq in which the US deployed massive force in certain regions in Iraq in an attempt to bring forth democracy, even though some of the areas posed no security threats to the US. Through the instillation of democratic regimes in countrie s that are led by terrorist groups, the US aims at enhancing deterrence. In fact, many nations in which the US has intervened to topple terrorist administration such as Afghanistan have relied on it (the US) and NATO forces to sustain their territorial integrity (Hautecouverture 2014). With this reliance, the global population rests assured that any potential security threat is well deterred. Currently, terrorism is becoming almost an imminent threat to any nation that is opposed to social, cultural, and political ideologies of intolerance or extremism. Hence, it is appropriate for nations to look for ways of ensuing they possess the capability to stop terrorist threats before such acts have been executed in their own soils. This claim suggests that the concept of deterrence remains important in the current and future policies of averting terrorism. One of the ways of reducing the possibility of terrorism rests on proper identification of potential sources of threats. Hence, while d eterring terrorism, nations need to identify people who pose the threat together with their origin. However, in the identification process, possibilities of stereotyping other people are inevitable. Conception of differences among people in a negative way based on nationality, gender, and race among other social and demographic differences attracts oversimplification of perceptions of the involved people. In fact, association of one group with some certain characteristics that are inferior or negative is not based on facts, but rather on misconceptions and prejudices. These misconceptions and prejudices about a particular group of people lead to their stereotyping. More interactively, from the perspective of socio-psychology, stereotyping involves, ‘the pictures that people have in their minds about other groups’ (Major et al. 1998, p.34). For instance, when persons encounter an individual of a certain nationality who successfully or unsuccessfully executes a terrorist attack, they may spread the news that all people who belong to such a country are all terrorists. The problem of stereotyping people of certain nationalities constitutes one of the biggest challenges of overcoming terrorism through deterrence. Generalisation hinders diversity integration as a major concern for international relations discourses. It leads to stigmatisation and discrimination (Gomez 2002). Positive stereotypes may also be harmful since they translate into limitation of people’s attitudes towards a group of others. This claim implies that people who are stereotyped presume that the beliefs that are held against their intergroup are justifiable from the basis of impressions of other people as opposed to out-group stereotypes. Indeed, there have been major problems in overcoming the belief that terrorists are of Arabic origin. There are also assumptions that terrorists are extreme Muslims (Vorauer, Main O’Connell 1998). However, the current wave of terrori sm, especially in Africa nullifies this negative perception since people from across the racial divide have been identified as terrorists. Without a clear understanding of how terrorists appear, behave, or reason, deterrence becomes an ineffective strategy for reducing economic and human life losses that are associated with it. Unlike terrorism, physical facilities are required in the production of nuclear weapons (Heuser 2007). This claim suggests that international community can track the location of the facilities. Consequently, any deterrence measure or policy can be developed targeting a specific nation or region. For instance, although Iran inspection that was conducted by France, Britain, IAEA, and Germany revealed that Iran had brought to a halt its nuclear weapon programme, the presence of the US military in its borders between 2003 and 2004 prompted reconsideration of the development of Iran’s nuclear capability (Riet 2013). Upon the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the EU3 agreement with the government of Iran to stop the exploration of nuclear weapons collapsed. Indeed, in 2009, Iran disclosed that it had a facility for uranium enrichment that was located at Fordow. This facility is protected such that it is less prone to missile destruction. IAEA immensely believes that the facility had been undergoing tremendous expansion and that uranium enrichment had already begun as from December 2011. With the ready but unused nuclear weapon capability, Iran might have confidence that it will have the ability to sustain its direct deterrence if the great nations attack it. For nations that seek to compel others not to engage in the proliferation of nuclear weapons, they regard Iran as having a specific location for nuclear plants. Hence, a deterrence policy that focuses only on the nation can be implemented. Conclusion Nuclear weapons and terrorism can lead to mass suffering of people across all nations. While deterrence can be an effective strategy t o prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons to rogue states, it fails to curtail international terrorism. Since the last decade, terrorism has become an act of violation of territorial integrity of nations by people from across the racial spectrum within and outside the American borders. Prevention of the proliferation of nuclear weapons through deterrence is possible since the source of the threat can be identified to a given nation such as the case of Iran. References Adsera, A Boix, C 2002, ‘Trade, democracy and the size of the public sector: The political underpinnings of openness’, International Organisation, vol. 56 no. 2, pp. 229–262. Freedman, L 2004, Deterrence, Polity Press, New York, NY. Gomez, A 2002, ‘If my group stereotypes others, others stereotype my group and we know: Concept, research lines and future perspectives of meta-stereotypes’, Revista de Psicologà ­a Social, vol. 17 no. 3, pp. 253-282. Hautecouverture, B 2014, NATO nee ds to be Prepared for the Possible Crises to Come. Web. Heuser, B 2007, ‘Beliefs, Cultures, Proliferation and Use of Nuclear Weapons’, Journal of Strategic Studies, vol. 23 no. 1, pp. 74-100. Litvintsev, G 2014, Russia – Iran: Questions of cultural interaction. Web. Major, B, Spencer, S, Schmader, T, Wolfe, C Crocker, J 1998, ‘Coping with negative stereotypes about intellectual performance: The role of psychological disengagement’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 24 no. 3, pp. 34-50. Miller, M 2013, The Foundations of Modern Terrorism: State, Society and the Dynamics of Political Violence, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Morgan, P 2003, Deterrence Now, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. Morgenthau, H 2011, A Realist Theory of International Politics and Political Power, Norton, London. Nau, H 2008, Perspectives on International Relations: Power, Institutions, Ideas, Palgrave, New York, NY. Riet, R 2013, Moving Beyond th e Nuclear World to a Nuclear Weapon Free World. Web. Ross, R Feng, Z 2008, China’s Ascent: Power, Security, and the Future of International Politic, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Vorauer, D, Main, J O’Connell, B 1998, ‘How Do Individuals Expect to Be Viewed by Members of Lower Status Groups? Content and Implications of Meta-Stereotypes’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 75 no. 4, pp. 917-937. Waltz, K 2010, ‘Nuclear Myths and Political Realities’, The American Political Science Review, vol. 84 no. 3, pp. 731–746. This essay on Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons to Rogue States and International Terrorists was written and submitted by user Jesse Delaney to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on South Beach Diet

South Beach Diet The South Beach Diet isn’t low-carbohydrates or low-fat. Instead, it explains to someone considering starting the South Beach Diet how to rely on the right carbohydrates and the right fats. These good carbohydrates and right fats are taken in so you can lose weight, lower your cholesterol, reduce your risk of heart disease and diabetes, and get rid of cravings without feeling hungry. The South Beach Diet allows you to choose the right carbohydrates and the right fats, which allows you to go throughout the day without being hungry all the time, and when you do eat your portion sizes wont be nearly as big. Good Carbohydrates versus Bad Carbohydrates. Much of a persons excess weight comes from the carbohydrates we eat, most commonly when the highly processed carbohydrates found in baked goods, breads, snacks, SOFT DRINKS, and just about every other favorite snack food. These carbohydrates are considered bad carbohydrates because industrial processing removes the fibers from food, and once these fibers are taken from the food, the way our body metabolizes them changes significantly, and very much so for the WORSE! One reason that excess weight is bad is that it impairs the insulin in our body to do its job of processing fuel (fats and sugars) properly. This condition is called insulin resistance. As a result of excess weight, the body stores more fat than it should, especially in the midsection, which is extremely hard to get rid of instead of just keeping it off. In the South Beach Diet plenty of animal proteins made up for the cut in bad carbohydrates. According to the author of South Beach Diet, Arthur Agatston, M.D. †lean meat did not have a harmful effect on blood chemistry.† Doctor Agatston also stated that â€Å"even egg yolks are good for you, which is contrary to what we once believed.† Chicken, turkey, fish, nuts, low-fat cheeses, and yogurts are all considered â€Å"Good Fats,† and are recommen... Free Essays on South Beach Diet Free Essays on South Beach Diet South Beach Diet The South Beach Diet isn’t low-carbohydrates or low-fat. Instead, it explains to someone considering starting the South Beach Diet how to rely on the right carbohydrates and the right fats. These good carbohydrates and right fats are taken in so you can lose weight, lower your cholesterol, reduce your risk of heart disease and diabetes, and get rid of cravings without feeling hungry. The South Beach Diet allows you to choose the right carbohydrates and the right fats, which allows you to go throughout the day without being hungry all the time, and when you do eat your portion sizes wont be nearly as big. Good Carbohydrates versus Bad Carbohydrates. Much of a persons excess weight comes from the carbohydrates we eat, most commonly when the highly processed carbohydrates found in baked goods, breads, snacks, SOFT DRINKS, and just about every other favorite snack food. These carbohydrates are considered bad carbohydrates because industrial processing removes the fibers from food, and once these fibers are taken from the food, the way our body metabolizes them changes significantly, and very much so for the WORSE! One reason that excess weight is bad is that it impairs the insulin in our body to do its job of processing fuel (fats and sugars) properly. This condition is called insulin resistance. As a result of excess weight, the body stores more fat than it should, especially in the midsection, which is extremely hard to get rid of instead of just keeping it off. In the South Beach Diet plenty of animal proteins made up for the cut in bad carbohydrates. According to the author of South Beach Diet, Arthur Agatston, M.D. †lean meat did not have a harmful effect on blood chemistry.† Doctor Agatston also stated that â€Å"even egg yolks are good for you, which is contrary to what we once believed.† Chicken, turkey, fish, nuts, low-fat cheeses, and yogurts are all considered â€Å"Good Fats,† and are recommen...

Marketing Plan for Jos. Fredrick &Sons Research Paper

Marketing Plan for Jos. Fredrick &Sons - Research Paper Example From the targeted $70,000, the marketing system, whose validity will determine the accuracy of the budget, will depend on portfolio planning, i.e. the coordinated planning of the individual services, the 80:20 rule, which makes the plan clear, concise and clear by concentrating on the 20% of services, and on the 20% of the customers to account for 80% of the volume and 80% of the profit, and lastly the 7 P's program that focuses on Product/services, Place, Price and Promotion, Physical environment people and the Marketing Process. Since the three broad services offered by Jos. Fredrick & Sons are the company's pillars, the budget will need to be shared equally and a small portion set aside to oversee the implementation of the marketing plan as follows; The company should maintain the slogan "Our Ability is Your Security", as it is well known by the intended market. However, much more should be done in respect to the wording "leave the repairs and regular maintenance to the pros" into a more eye-catching one such as "the man in town will sort you". This will no doubt go a long way in the company's market positioning as it will instinctively arouse interest in the customers who will want to experience the change that the "new man in town" is out to offer, which could be different from what the company has offered in the last six decades. Such a small change in the wording could mean a lot, and the things that the company would require to do is to inscribe those words in their invoices, paint it in a fancy way on their website, or paint their service vehicles with those words in odd colors that will have a feel of odd works such as plumbing. There should also be some bumper stickers with the Company's name, logo, and the words "the ne w man in town will sort you". The costs for such activities will go to the 10% budget provision as they are aimed at overseeing the success of the plan.  

Ray Bradbury Fahrenheit 451 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ray Bradbury Fahrenheit 451 - Essay Example In the futuristic society people’s main leisure activity is watching TV, independent thinking and reading are illegal, books are burned, and information given to the citizens is censored. The protagonist Montag, who burns books for a living, does not question such way of life. However, a meeting with a teenager Clarisse changes the main character’s point of view. Clarisse does not share the values of the society and prefers traditional pastimes of reading, contemplating and talking to people. Talking to her Montag starts to realize that even though advanced gadgets can make life easier, technology and mass culture can take over human lives. Fast development of technology gives the impression that we already live in the world described by Bradbury in the novel. It is evident in the fact that modern life cannot be imagined without TV, computers, social networks and instantaneous exchange of information. People have the impression that they already live in the future. Howe ver, the future based on digital technology and mass culture hides threats modern people overlook. Ray Bradbury more that a decade ago predicted what the course of development taken by our society could bring. In the novel Bradbury warns us about the danger of: abuse of technology that can distort reality and isolate people; consumerism that lays the foundations for the uniform pleasure-seeking society; manipulation through mass media that can result in the loss of free will. By describing the damage caused by lack of human communication, fascination with superfluous entertainment and media manipulation, Bradbury’s purpose is to prevent such conditions before they occur. For one thing, the more people rely on machines, the less they value and notice humans. As a consequence, in digital society, people are lonely and isolated from real world connections. Through the persona of Faber, English professor made redundant in

Stress Reduction In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Pediatric Essay

Stress Reduction In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Pediatric Massage - Essay Example Pediatric massage is an alternative and contemporary treatment that uses massage therapy. This is the process of manipulation of the soft tissues that is intended to promote the health and wellbeing of the autistic child. Massage takes into account each child’s cognitive and physical development of the child as well as the health care needs thus able to relieve physical pains and psychological torment acting as a stress reliever when applied to autistic children (Shipwright & Dryden, 2012). Research studies indicate that children with autistic spectrum disorder show less stereotypical autistic behavior and are more social and attentive after receiving a massage therapy. These children are equally less anxious after the reception of massage. Pediatric massage, when used by the caregiver, helps in strengthening the emotional bond between the caregiver and the child thus helps in reduction of stress each time the caregiver comes into a tactile association with the autistic child (Field, Diego, & Hernandez-Reif,

Religion Essays Anselm and Descartes

Religion Essays Anselm and Descartes Anselm Descartes Religion Anselm and Descartes The debate regarding the existence of God has lasted for centuries. Man’s quest to establish the validity of God’s existence remains ongoing till this day. Saint Anselm and Rene Descartes were two thinkers who left a lasting impression from their philosophical works on the existence of God. Both men strived to prove the existence of God using rational and logical argumentation. Stylistically they differ, yet both share a cohesion of interest in which their common objective is to use philosophical reasoning to derive an â€Å"Ontological Argument† which favors the existence of God. Saint Anselm lived during 1033-1109, the prime of the Middle Ages. He was a devoted Christian who contributed significant works in theology and philosophy. As a faithful Christian, he yearned for a rational interpretation that proved the existence of God. The Augustinian phrase sums this idea; â€Å"faith seeking understanding† (Baird 322). In Anselm’s â€Å"Proslogion† he develops the â€Å"Ontological Argument† attempting to prove God’s existence. Anselm states that God is a being â€Å"in which nothing greater can be conceived.† He significantly quotes, the Psalms 13:1; â€Å"the Fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God.†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ He addresses this issue because he wants to prove the relevance of his prior statement, â€Å"we believe you to be something greater than which nothing greater can be conceived.† The Fool described in Psalms can comprehend this statement even if he is unsure that what he understands exists. Therefore, a major distinction is drawn by Anselm; â€Å"it is one thing for something to be in the understanding and quite another to understand that the thing in question exists† (Baird 325). Thus, the â€Å"Fool† can be convinced by his understanding that there is â€Å"something than which nothing greater can be conceived.† Anselm goes even further by arguing that â€Å"something in which nothing greater can be conceived† not only exists in the understanding, but can also be thought as existing in reality. Consequently, Anselm maintains, â€Å"without a doubt then there exists both in understanding and in reality a being greater than which nothing can be conceived† (Baird 325). Anselm develops his argument further by claiming that because such a thing exists, that thing cannot be thought of as not existing. Moreover, an interesting point is made by Anselm when he says, â€Å"It is possible indeed to think of anything other than you as nonexistent.† In other words, Anselm is trying to say that all other things can be thought of as not existing, but God has a perfect existence in which it is impossible to claim nonexistent because then it would be paradoxical. The measure of Gods existence supersedes all others because nothing greater can be conceived. Anselm once again discusses the fool who says in his heart that there is no God. Reason being, he wants to illustrate the connection between â€Å"to say in ones heart† and to think. The fool said in his heart that God did not exist, yet the same fool conceived a being greater than any other. Therefore, to say in ones heart is equal to thinking because to say in ones heart, one must first think. This also holds true for the reversal, if he does not think, than he does not say it in his heart. Thinking is initiated in two senses according to Anselm. In the first sense, thinking is signaled by a word that describes the thing. In the second sense, thinking is created when one thinks of the actual thing itself. Thus, from the perspective of the first sense it can be true that God does not exist. From the second sense, the denial of the existence of God is impossible because the thing itself has been thought or conceived. Since Descartes’ â€Å"Fifth Mediation† was written many years after Anselm’s â€Å"Ontological Argument† it becomes apparent, at least in one sense that Descartes refers indirectly to arguments established in Anselm’s â€Å"Ontological Argument.† This relationship or connection can be seen in both arguments as the idea of God’s â€Å"perfect existence.† Descartes however, in my opinion delves into the concept of perfect existence candidly. Whereas Anselm, attributes this perfect existence in his statement â€Å"we believe you to be something greater than which nothing grater can be conceived.† Regardless of the methods used they both attribute perfection to this supreme, eternal Being. Additionally, Descartes argument regarding the existence of God is not presupposed by faith like Anselm’s. Rather, Descartes begins his argument in a different manner then Anselm, speaking nothing about prior faith in God’s existence. He begins the â€Å"Fifth Meditation† by explaining how he has the ability to conceive in his mind a vast array of different shapes and dimensions. Even if these figments which he has created within his mind do not actual exist outside of his mind, they still contain immutable and eternal properties. A triangle is used by Descartes to elaborate upon this issue. He argues that even if the triangle did not exist outside of his mind it still contains indisputable properties. Therefore, once these properties are conceived clearly and distinctly they must be completely true. Like the triangle, the idea of a supremely perfect being exists in both our mind and Descartes. This idea does not differ from that of the triangle in any sense because each contains a nature or property. Descartes clearly and distinctly observes that Gods existence belongs to his nature, like a figure or number whose nature belongs to that figure or number. Descartes agrees that God can be thought of as not existing. This means, one can segregate his existence from his essential properties. Furthermore, this ability to separate existence and essence is also present within all other things examined according to Descartes. However, with closer inspection and with greater attention given to this notion Descartes discovered that, â€Å"we can no more separate the existence of God from his essence than we can separate from the essence of a rectilinear triangle the fact that the size of its three angles equals two right angles† (Baird 430). In other words, with other things we can separate the existence from the properties because the other things are not of a perfect being like God. Both Anselm and Descartes both use the premise of God as not existing, to prove his existence. They formulate their argument in this way because with closer inspection they refute the thought of God not existing because God has a perfect existence, and to claim that a perfect Being does not exist in reality would be â€Å"self contradictory† (Baird 430). Thus, according to Anselm and Descartes, a perfect Being must exist in both the mind and in reality since its existence is eternal, immutable, and perfect. In addition, Descartes maintains that he cannot think of God without existence any more than he can think of a mountain without a valley. Even though a necessary characteristic of a mountain is that it be contiguous to a valley, â€Å"it doesnt follow that any mountains or valleys exist.† Similarly, even though a supremely perfect being possesses certain attributes, it does not coincide with the existence of that being. Consequently Descartes says, â€Å"From the fact alone that I cannot conceive God except as existing, it follows that existence is inseparable from him, and consequently that he does, in truth, exist† (Barid 430) This acknowledgment of Gods existence is made by Descartes namely because God â€Å"possesses all sorts of perfections†, existence being one of them. Descartes then continues addressing an objection in regards to his prior argument. Consequently, he says that it is not necessary for him to suppose the thought of God, yet once he does think of God, then existence is necessary. This follows and is no different from it not being necessary for one to suppose something that is false. Descartes uses the inscription of a rhombus into a circle to illustrate this issue. â€Å"It is not necessary to think that all four sided figures can be inscribed in a circle; but if we suppose that I do have this idea, I am forced to admit that a rhombus can be inscribed in one, since it is a four sided figure, and by this I will be forced to admit what is clearly false† (Baird 431). Therefore, to Descartes one must not say, that even though it is not necessary for one to think of God, when one does think of the idea of a supreme being you are necessarily attributing an array of perfections. Thus, once it has been recognized that existence is perfection, one must conclude that this Supreme Being actually exists. Therefore, a distinction has been made by Descartes; there are many differences between false assumptions and true innate ideas, namely the thought of God. According to Descartes, this idea is not â€Å"imaginary or fictitious† because God is the only thing that can be conceived as having a â€Å"true and immutable nature.† There have been many attempts to refute the arguments of Anselm and Descartes. However, because of the rational and logical sequence that both follow in their arguments it has become increasingly difficult for others to prove these claims erroneous. Regardless, both men have provided invaluable documentation regarding the possibility of God’s existence in our minds and in reality. Even atheists find these arguments hard to refute because both thinkers cleverly used the thought of God as not existing, to prove that God, in his perfection does actually exist in our minds and in reality. Work Cited Baird, Forrest E., Walter Kauffmann. From Plato to Derrida. Forth ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.

The three great crimes of macbeth :: essays research papers

The Three Great Crimes of Macbeth   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The play ‘Macbeth’ is a portrait of one man, an ambitious, ruthless, disturbing individual.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The play shows how he evolves as a person. Although we are presented with his declination from good to evil, we can see his human side throughout the play, which makes it a tragedy. The themes of ‘Macbeth’ are ambition, effects of evil, and violence. Once Macbeth’s ambition has ‘set the ball rolling’, events happen quickly in the play as it gathers momentum. The themes are demonstrated mainly by the language of the play. As in Shakespeare’s time, plays were performed in daylight with very few props. Ambition is something that everyone can identify with, and ‘Macbeth’ is a interesting study of how ambition can destroy you, so the audience is interested in Macbeth’s character. Our first impression of Macbeth is of a heroic, famous, popular man who is well liked by the King, Duncan. Duncan refers to Macbeth as ‘noble Macbeth’.(Act 1 Scene 2 L67) Macbeth craves the title of king greatly, but real izes that he will have to commit some horrible crimes to get that position. Macbeth is tempted to follow through with the acts because of two sources of external evil - the witches and his wife, Lady Macbeth. Macbeth was already ambitious, but this was only heightened by the women as they made those desires appear as though they were achievable. This sets into motion the first of three great crimes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Act one, scene three, Macbeth reveals that he is thinking of killing Duncan. Once the audience knows how the character thinks, they tend to sympathize with him, which is another reason why Macbeth is a tragedy. Shakespeare was such a talented playwrite, that he tended to make the audience sympathize with not only the hero, but also the villain. The aside follows closely Macbeth’s desires and doubts - he does not know whether ‘this supernatural soliciting’ is good or bad, but he dearly wants to be king. He describes the murder that he is imagining to be ‘horrible’(Act 1 Scene 3 L137) and ‘makes my seated heart knock at my ribs’ (Act 1 Scene 3 L135), showing that the whole idea disgusts and horrifies him, as it would any man who was brave and noble, but Macbeth cannot stop thinking about it, showing that he is considering the idea and is drawn to it, and that he has ambitions to be king within him already.